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Carbohydrate: starches and sugars, glucose and sucrose
lipids: can be utilized for energy if sugars are not available
protiens: DNA or RNA, antibodies
nucleic acid: forms hydrophobic part of membrane
Related Questions
A species is a group of organisms capable of mating and producing fertile offspring, and speciation is the process of forming a new species.
One way a new species may form is by geographic isolation. This occurs when members of a population are physically separated, for example, by a river, or a desert.
After the separation the two populations, responding to different conditions, will adapt differently, and so their evolutionary paths will
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Answer:
A species is a group of organisms capable of mating and producing offspring, and speciation is the process of forming a new species. One way a new species may form is by geographic isolation. This occurs when members of a population are physically separated, for example, by a river, or a desert. converge.
Explanation:
Describe how to make a wet mount slide of your cheek cells.
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Answer:
Explanation:
5 steps for creating a wet mount slide?
Wet Mount:
Place a drop of fluid in the center of the slide.
Position sample on liquid, using tweezers.
At an angle, place one side of the cover slip against the slide making contact with outer edge of the liquid drop.
Lower the cover slowly, avoiding air bubbles.
Remove excess water with the paper towel.
Anti-inflammatory agents that are used to reduce inflammation in the respiratory tract are called:______.
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Anti-inflammatory agents that are used to reduce inflammation in the respiratory tract are called corticosteroids.
Anti-inflammatory agents are the drugs used to treat or reduce the symptoms of inflammation. The general symptoms of inflammation in respiratory system are: coughing, sneezing, sore throat, pain, difficulty in breathing, etc.
Corticosteroids are the commonly used anti-inflammatory drugs. These drugs resemble the hormone cortisol synthesized by the adrenal glands of the body. Along with soothing the inflammation, they also suppress the immune system. Corticosteroids can be taken in the form of tablets, nasal spray, inhalers, and even injections.
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The gene that causes sickle cell disease is present in a higher percentage of residents of sub-Saharan Africa than among those of African descent living in the United States. This gene provides some protection from malaria, a serious disease that is widespread in sub-Saharan Africa. Discuss an evolutionary process that could account for the different percentages among residents of the two regions. (See Concept 1.2 .)
Answers
The evolutionary process that accounts for the different sickle cell allele ratios is stabilizing selection in endemic malaria areas.
What is stabilizing selection?Stabilizing selection is a special class of natural selection that acts to maintain the frequency of a harmful allele in the population because it confers some type of adaptive advantage to the individuals in the population.
In this case, the allele for sickle-cell anemia can be harmful when it is homozygous individual but it is beneficial in heterozygous individuals because it allows them to resist malaria disease, and therefore this allele is maintained by a special class of stabilizing selection on the population.
In conclusion, the evolutionary process that accounts for the different hemoglobin allele ratios in the two world regions may be associated with the different types of natural selection (i.e., stabilizing selection in endemic malaria areas).
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Out of the four measuring instruments (micropipette, serological pipette, transfer pipette, and eyedropper), which do you expect to be the most precise? why?
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Out of the four measuring instruments, the micropipette is expected to be most precise because it continually dispenses a set volume of substance. A micropipette is a typical but crucial laboratory tool used to precisely and accurately transfer liquid quantities in the microliter range. Single channel and multiple channel micropipettes are both available.
Fixed and variable micropipettes are the two different types of micropipettes. The Fixed micropipettes have a fixed volume of liquid that can be transferred. There is no way to modify the preset micropipettes to remove more or less volume. Utilize the liquid in the pipette's concave surface at the bottom to measure.
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Out of the four measuring instruments, the micropipette is expected as to be most precise that because it continually dispenses a set volume of the substance. A micropipette is typical but the crucial laboratory tool used to precisely and then accurately transfer to liquid quantities in the microliter range. A Single channel and the multiple channel micropipettes are both are available.
The Fixed and the variable micropipettes are the two different types of the micropipettes. The Fixed micropipettes have the fixed volume of the liquid that can be transferred. There is no way to modify the preset of micropipettes to remove the more or less volume. Utilize the liquid in the pipette's or concave surface at the bottom to measure
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Oxytocin is a hormone released in response to cervical dilation. this causes more uterine contractions that will further dilate the cervix. which type of feedback does oxytocin trigger?
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Oxytocin is a hormone released in response to cervical dilation. this causes more uterine contractions that will further dilate the cervix is positive feed back.
What is positive feedback mechanism?Positive feedback systems are uncommon. Instead of undoing changes, it increases them. Positive feedback mechanisms are demonstrated by the posterior pituitary gland's production of oxytocin during labor.Oxytocin causes the muscular contractions that push the baby towards the delivery canal. During labor, the release of oxytocin causes contractions to be stronger or more frequent. Up until the moment the baby is outside the birth canal, the contractions get stronger and stronger. Labor contractions stop when the stimulus to the pressure receptors quits, which also causes the production of oxytocin to stop.Positive feedback mechanisms regulate self-replicating, potentially uncontrollable phenomena without the need for constant modification. In systems that produce positive feedback, the initial stimulus is reinforced rather than suppressed. Positive feedback makes a difference from the optimum normal value bigger.Learn more about the positive feedback mechanism with the help of the given link:
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how you would classify the transport carried out by na-k pumps which move na out of the cell? why do you choose this classification? question 21 options: 1) as facilitated diffusion as they use carrier proteins but no energy is required. 2) as simple diffusion as they transport na and k down a concentration gradient 3) as active transport as they transport against a concentration gradient and energy is utilized. 4) as osmosis as they use energy and transport against a concentration gradient
Answers
The transport of na -k molecules is Active transport.
Is the Na K pump an antiport?An antiporter transport protein is the sodium-potassium pump. This pump uses roughly 30% of the body's ATP, which results from the hydrolysis of one ATP molecule as three Na+ molecules are pumped out of the cell and two K+ molecules are pumped in.
Option 3 will be correct as active transport as they transport against a concentration gradient and energy is utilized.
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When more than one wild-type allele occurs in a population, the phenomenon is called?
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When more than one wild-type allele occurs in a population, the phenomenon is called genetic polymorphism.
In the field of genetics, genetic polymorphism can be described as a phenomenon in which more than one allele is present as specific gene loci. These different alleles are expressed in different organisms of the same species.
Both the wild-type alleles, that occur through genetic polymorphism, have the ability to express themselves in a population. These variations are present in more than 1% of the population.
The most common example of genetic polymorphism is single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). In the field of genetics, single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) can be described as a change that occurs in a single nucleotide at specific gene loci.
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the energy stored in atp comes from which of the following? the energy stored in atp comes from which of the following? adenosine triphosphate kinetic energy food molecules heat
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The energy stored in the ATP comes from food molecules (option C).
What is ATP?ATP, which is an acronym for Adenosine triphosphate, is a biological molecule that carries and stores energy for use by living cells.
It is regarded as the energy currency of the cell. The ATP molecule stores energy in the phosphate bonds and is release when the bond is broken.
However, this energy emanates from the food molecules we ingest. Digestion, which breaks down food molecules into simplest absorbable unit, follows ingestion.
Therefore, the energy stored in the ATP comes from food molecules.
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If you removed the root cap from a root, would the root still respond to gravity? Explain.
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Answer: No, the root would not respond to gravity because the gravity sensing cells are in the root cap.
Which molecule has both hydrophilic and hydrophobic properties and is found in plasma membranes?
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The primary constituents of the bilayer of phospholipids that composes the plasma membrane. Because they are amphipathic, or have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic areas, they are ideally suited for this function.
A phospholipid is hydrophobic and hydrophilic for what reason?Because the hydrocarbon tails of two fatty acids are still hydrophobic but the phosphate group end is hydrophilic, phospholipids are soluble in both water and oil (amphiphilic). The main constituent of lipid bilayers, which make up cell membranes, is phospholipid.
Aluminum foil is one example of a hydrophilic metal surface. Lotus leaves are extremely hydrophobic and cause water to bead because of their surface structure. Hydrophobic surfaces tend to reject water, forcing it to form droplets.
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Aflatoxins can taint ________, leading to massive recalls due to the toxic nature of these compounds.
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Flatoxins can taint nuts and lead to extensive recalls since they are harmful.
Mycotoxins known as aflatoxins are produced by Aspergillus and Penicillium fungus. The liver processes aflatoxins, which are harmful substances that are introduced into the body. Any living thing that consumes an infected cereal will perish due to its extreme toxicity potential.
We at AMBiotec are well aware of the risk that mycotoxins present in animal feed, and we work to create solutions in our labs that, when applied to the raw materials used to make feed, would mitigate the hazards that mycotoxins represent to the health and welfare of animals.
How do aflatoxins work?
Aflatoxins are poisonous compounds made by certain fungus (molds) that exist naturally all over the world. They can contaminate food crops, represent a substantial risk to the health of people and animals, and place a heavy financial burden on farmers. As a result, at least 25% of the world's food crops are lost each year (WHO, 2018).
Aspergillus flavus and A. parasitic us, two closely related fungus species, are the principal perpetrators in the generation of the aflatoxins that are most dangerous to the general public's health. They can attack food crops when the temperature and humidity are high and favorable.
Therefore Aflatoxins are poisonous, they can contaminate nuts and cause widespread recalls.
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Lynn has developed cancer. an oncologist tells her the cancer is located in the lower portion of her uterus. the cancer is located in lynn's _____.
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If the oncologist tells her the cancer is located in the lower portion of her uterus, then the cancer is located in the cervix.
What is cervical cancer?Cervical cancer is a special type of cancer disease associated with uncontrolled growth of cells in the cervix, which is found the lower portion of the female uterus.
Cervical cancer may be one of the most harmful types of cancers and therefore it should be diagnosed at time to avoid major health complication in the individual who is suffering this disease.
In conclusion, if the oncologist tells her the cancer is located in the lower portion of her uterus, then the cancer is located in the cervix.
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Substances that maintain fluid balance, work as part of enzymes, and keep your immune system strong are called:_________
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In human bodies, enzymes operate as catalysts for biochemical events and have a variety of functions in the immune system. The gut is where more than 50% of our immune system is located.
What is the role of enzyme in immune system?To defend your body from a particular invader, the acquired immune system produces special proteins (known as antibodies) with assistance from the innate immune system.
Although the importance of enzymes in maintaining a healthy digestive system is widely established, less is known about the crucial function they play in promoting a healthy immune system.
Life is impossible without enzymes. Almost every function in cells, including protein synthesis, energy metabolism,
Therefore, antibodies as part of enzymes, and keep your immune system strong.
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Substances that significantly maintain fluid balance, work as part of enzymes, and keep your immune system strong are called vitamins and minerals.
What are Enzymes?Enzymes may be defined as biocatalysts that increase the rate of chemical reactions without being changed in the overall process. It may be known that all cellular reactions and or processes are mediated by enzymes.
Vitamins and minerals are organic compounds that are typically required by an organism in order to perform specific cellular functions like maintaining fluid balance, involve in enzyme catalysis, and keeping your immune system strong and strengthen.
Therefore, vitamins and minerals are the substances that significantly maintain fluid balance, work as part of enzymes, and keep your immune system strong.
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one population of a species has 25 individuals, all with genotype aa; a second population of this species has 40 individuals, all with genotype aa. assume that these populations live far apart but in similar environmental conditions. based on this information, the observed genetic variation most likely resulted from .
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Genetic drift is an evolutive force that affects small populations and changes their allelic and genotypic frequencies by randomly fixating some alleles and eliminating others. Option A) Genetic Drift.
What is genetic drift?Genetic drift is an evolutionary mechanism in which the allelic frequencies in a population change through many generations. Its effects are harder in a small-sized population.
Genetic drift results in some alleles loss, even those that are beneficial for the population, and the fixation of some other alleles by an increase in their frequencies. The final consequence is to randomly attach one of the alleles.
Two events that involve genetic drift are the bottleneck effect and the founder effect.
Now we need to define which option is the best.
We have two small populations (25 and 40 indviduals)One of the populations is AA while the other one is aaThey are separated and far away from each otherThey are under equal environemntal conditionsWhat happened?
Gene flow
This is not the case, because gene flow decreases heterogeneity between populations, reducing genetic variation. Besides if these populations are far away, gene flow would be difficult.
Nonrandom matings
This is not the case, because with nonrandom mating there would not be such a change in frequencies.
Directional selection
Directional selection does not seem to be the cause either, because both populations are under the exact same environmental conditions, so pressures acting on them are the same. There is no change in this aspect.
Genetic Drift
I believe this is the best option. Genetic drift causes a change in allele frequencies and affects small populations. These populations might have been separated for a long time, and suffered the effects of genetic drift. It might be a founder effect case, with the smaller population being the newest one.
The correct option is Genetic Drift. Option A.
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Complete question
One population of a species has 25 individuals, all with genotype AA; a second population of this species has 40 individuals, all with genotype aa.
Assume that these populations live far apart but in similar environmental conditions.
Based on this information, the observed genetic variation most likely resulted from.
(A) genetic drift.
(B) gene flow
(C) nonrandom mating.
(D) directional selection.
Balancing selection can maintain variation at a locus (see Concept 23.4). Based on the foraging experiments described in this chapter, devise a simple hypothesis to explain the presence of both for ² and for alleles in natural fly populations.
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It is known as balanced selection when two or more alleles (different gene forms) are kept in a gene pool and is thought to be a type of natural selection.
Due to inheritance from both the mother's and father's defective genes, sickle cell anaemia is an illustration of balanced selection.
Does non-random mating alter the frequency of alleles?If the other suppositions are true, nonrandom mating does not alter allele frequencies from one generation to the next, but it might produce variations in predicted genotype frequencies and pave the way for natural selection to bring about evolutionary change.
Non-random mating can modify genotype frequencies, but it won't change the population's allele frequencies on its own. It is questionable whether or not this prevents the population from reaching Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
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An ecologist studying desert plants performed the following experiment. She staked out two identical plots, containing sagebrush plants and small annual wildflowers. She found the same five wildflower species in roughly equal numbers on both plots. She then enclosed one plot with a fence to keep out kangaroo rats, the most common grain-eaters of the area. After two years, four of the wildflower species were no longer present in the fenced plot, but one species had become much more abundant. The control plot had not changed in species diversity. Using the principles of community ecology, propose a hypothesis to explain her results. What additional evidence would support your hypothesis?
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The additional evidence that would support your hypothesis is the place where both living and nonliving things present and interact with each other.
How to illustrate the information?This illustration demonstrates how plant predatory behavior affects the choice of species. The choice of plants in the enclosed area is not influenced by animal predation.
Only other plants will fight for resources in this situation, and one plant had a selection advantage over the other three plant species. The ratio of the four species is the same in the plot that is subject to animal exploitation.
This is probably a result of animals' greater preference for the dominant plant species in the enclosed plot and/or the other three species' anti-animal predation strategies.
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Which of the following hypotheses can be tested with experiments? (Select all that apply.)
Check All That Apply
Scientists will find a cure for cancer before the year 2020.
A diet low in sugar reduces the risk for heart disease.
Coffee increases subject performance on intelligence tests.
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The hypotheses that state 'A diet low in sugar reduces the risk for heart disease' and 'Coffee increases subject performance on intelligence tests' can be tested with experiments (Options 2 and 3 are correct).
What is a hypothesis?A hypothesis can be defined as a particular explanation used to ask a scientific question, which must be tested by experiments or observation and it is a fundamental part of the scientific method.
In conclusion, the hypotheses that state 'A diet low in sugar reduces the risk for heart disease' and 'Coffee increases subject performance on intelligence tests' can be tested with experiments (Options 2 and 3 are correct).
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Organic molecules that assist enzymes in chemical reactions, act as hormones or antioxidants, or direct organs in their functions are called?
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Organic molecules that assist enzymes in chemical reactions, act as hormones or antioxidants, or direct organs in their functions are called vitamins and is denoted as option B.
What are Vitamins?These refers to organic molecules which are needed in small quantities by the body cells for the proper metabolic processes and is divided into water soluble and fat soluble vitamins. Sources of vitamins include mostly fruits and vegetables and other food substances.
Vitamins assist enzymes in chemical reactions, act as hormones or antioxidants, or direct organs in their function which is therefore the reason why it was chosen as the most appropriate choice.
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The options are:
a. supplements
b. vitamins
c. minerals
d. stimulants
A ________ is an infertile offspring produced when organisms of two ____________ mates. a. heterozygote, different phenotypes b. endemic organism, endangered species c. genus, different communities d. hybrid, different species
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A hybrid is an infertile offspring produced when organisms of two different species mates.
Hybrids are the offspring produced by the sexual reproduction between two different species. These offspring may or may not be the intermediate of the two species. Generally hybrids are produced to mix the superior characteristics of both the parents in one organism. Plant and animal breeding is a very common practice especially for farming purposes.
Species is the lowermost level of hierarchy in the classification of organisms. It consists of organisms that have similar types of characteristics, require similar resources and most essentially they can breed among themselves and produce fertile offspring.
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Which cell is most likely responsible for the rejection of the client's transplanted organ?
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T cells are responsible for the rejection of the client's transplanted organ.
The immune system of a transplant recipient fights the transplanted organ or tissue during the process of transplant rejection.The recipient of an organ may be made aware of the alien nature of the organ by their immune system after transplant surgery. This is due to the fact that mismatched organs, or organs that are not closely enough matched, might result in a blood transfusion reaction or transplant rejection. The immune system of the patient detects this because the antigens on the cells of the organ are different or not "matched." An intricate web of interactions between the innate and adaptive immune systems, with T cells playing a key role, leads to the rejection of solid organ allografts.
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Predict what would happen if you injected a water-soluble hormone directly into the cytosol of a target cell.
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The water-soluble hormone's receptor is located on the surface of the target cell, thus when it is injected into the cytoplasm of the target cell, a biological response is not elicited.
A lipophobic hormone that cannot diffuse through the cell membrane and bind to its specific receptors produced on the surface of the target cell membrane is known as a water-soluble hormone.
For instance, the adrenal gland, which is situated on top of the kidneys, secretes the water-soluble hormone adrenaline.
A cellular reaction is brought on by the activation of an enzyme when a water-soluble hormone binds to a receptor found on a protein found on the surface of a cell. Cell-surface receptors can direct protein transport from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and control the transcription of a particular gene.
Because the receptors for water-soluble hormones facing the extracellular space are found on the cell surface, when a water-soluble hormone, such as adrenaline, is injected into the cytoplasm of the target cell, the hormone is unable to attach to its receptor.
Therefore, no biological reaction would be set off.
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All blood cells in an adult human can trace their ancestry to which compartment within the body?
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In the red bone marrow of bones, red blood cells are created. Hemocytoblasts are the name for the stem cells found in red bone marrow. All of the blood's formed constituents are produced by them.
From the common lymphoid progenitor, which immune cells are derived?Common lymphoid progenitor (CLP) cells in the bone marrow give rise to treg cells, which then migrate through the bloodstream to the thymus. Specialized microenvironments are necessary for cellular development. These cells hunt for the autoreactive T cells that have evaded the thymic process of negative selection.
A single type of cell known as a pluripotent cell is the source of all blood cells (also known as a hematopoetic stem cell or a hemocytoblast). Different cell lineages can arise from pluripotent cells.
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Explain how the feedback loop works in this model?
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Answer:
this refers to the process of using customer or employee feedback to create a better product or workplace.
Explanation:
_____ is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it. group of answer choices
Answers
Habituation is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it.
In the light of this, habituation mostly happens when living organisms ( animals ) are frequently exposed to the same stimulus at all times, eventually the animal will stop responding to that same stimulus
Sensitivity/IrritabilitySensitivity or irritability is defined as the ability of an organism to detect and respond to external stimulus.
Living organisms respond to stimulus such as:
LightTouchMovementHeatTemperaturePressureOther characteristics of living organisms aside irritability or sensitivity include:
Movement: This is the ability of a living organism to move its body parts or to move from one place to another Respiration: This refers to the exchange of gas between an organism and its environment. It also means breathing in and breathing out gases. Animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon while plants breathe in carbon dioxide and breathe out oxygen Nutrition: It means feeding or the act or process of taking in food substances. Other are growth, excretion and othersSo therefore, habituation is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it.
Complete question:
_____ is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it. group of answer choices.
a. Irritability
b. Stimulus
c. Habituation
d. None of the above
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Habituation is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it. Correct option is C.
What is habituation?Habituation refers to a process or the phenomenon that occurs whereby an organism responds less and less strongly to stimulus after frequent and multiple exposure to that stimulus.
Habituation is a learned behavior.
The organism no longer associates the same level of risk or reward to that particular stimulus.
Example of habituation is seen in drug-users who after frequent use of a drug require higher doses to experience the same effects.
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Note that the complete question is given below:
_____ is a form of learning in which an organism responds less strongly or less frequently to an event following multiple exposures to it. group of answer choices.
a. Irritability
b. Stimulus
c. Habituation
d. None of the above
The production of carbon dioxide during respiration in aerobic tissues lowers the ph in erythrocytes, which in turn ________ the affinity of oxygen binding to hemoglobin.
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The production of carbon dioxide during respiration in aerobic tissues lowers the ph in erythrocytes, which in turn decreases the affinity of oxygen binding to hemoglobin.
During internal respiration, carbon dioxide in erythrocytes combines with water to form carbonic acid, which then associates with hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ions. Bicarbonate ions get diffused out of erythrocytes and control the blood ph. Hemoglobin in the RBCs binds with hydrogen ions and reduces the affinity for oxygen. Oxygen then gets diffused out of the RBCs and enters the tissues. The interaction between hemoglobin and hydrogen ions and then its affinity for oxygen is called the Bohr effect.
Internal respiration results in the production of carbon dioxide in aerobic tissues that lowers the oh in erythrocytes through bicarbonate ions. This, in turn, decreases the affinity of oxygen binding to hemoglobin and releases it into the aerobic tissues.
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Cardiac biomarker levels are being evaluated for a patient who is suspected of having a myocardial infarction (mi). which biomarker lacks specificity for diagnosing an mi?
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Cardiac biomarker levels are being evaluated for a patient who is suspected of having a myocardial infarction (MI). The nurse recognizes that which biomarker lacks specificity and that its role in diagnosing an MI is limited?
a. Myoglobin
b. Creatine kinase-MB (CKMB)
c. Cardiac-specific troponin I (cTnI)
d. Cardiac-specific troponin T (cTnT)
The biomarker that lacks specificity and whose diagnostic role in MI is limited is myoglobin.
What is myoglobin?Myoglobin is a muscle protein whose function is the storage of oxygen, it is in high concentrations in the skeletal muscle since large amounts of oxygen are needed there. When measuring the levels of myoglobin in the blood, it is seen if the damaged tissue has released the protein into the blood, if so, its levels will be high in the blood.
Therefore, we can confirm that the biomarker that lacks specificity and whose diagnostic role in MI is limited is myoglobin.
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Suppose a person began breathing very rapidly while resting. Describe the effect on blood CO2 levels and the steps by which the negative-feedback circuit would restore homeostasis.
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Gas exchange in the lungs also contributes to the body's acid-base balance. When the pH of the blood gets excessively acidic, the pace of breathing rises.
What impact does CO2 have on breathing rate?The air might lose oxygen if the concentration is high. Rapid breathing, a quick heartbeat, clumsiness, emotional instability, and weariness might occur when there is less oxygen available for respiration. Vomiting, collapsing, having convulsions, going into a coma, and dying can happen when oxygen availability decreases.
What results in an increase in blood CO2 levels?There are a variety of potential causes, such as chronic diarrhoea or liver or renal illness. Due to lung or breathing issues, such as hyperventilation, you may have respiratory alkalosis, a disease in which your blood is not acidic enough (rapid, deep breathing).
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In the face of biological magnification of toxins, is it healthier to feed at a lower or higher trophic level? Explain.
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In the face of biological magnification of toxins, It's healthier to feed at a lower trophic level because biological magnification increases the concentration of toxins at higher levels.
Genetic variety commonly underpins population resilience and persistence. reductions in population size and the absence of gene flow can lead to discounts in genetic diversity, reproductive health, and a confined potential to conform to environmental exchange growing the danger of extinction.
Biodiversity loss describes the decline in the quantity, genetic variability, and sort of species, and biological groups in a given place. This loss within the form of existence can result in a breakdown in the functioning of the surroundings in which decline has taken place. reduced genetic range is bad for two motives. First, it has a tendency to result in populations that are much less fit which produces fewer offspring in common.
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WHAT IF? A locus that affects susceptibility to a degenerative brain disease has two alleles, V and v. In a population, 16 people have genotype V V, 92 have genotype V v , and 12 have genotype v v . Is this population evolving? Explain.
Answers
The Hardy-Weinberg theory states that as long as a population has the same allelic and genotypic frequencies through generations, it is in equilibrium, and is not evolving. This population IS EVOLVING.
What is Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?
The Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium theory that states that when a population is in equilibrium, it is not evolving.
The allelic frequencies in a locus are represented as p and q.
Assuming a diallelic gene,
Alleic frequencies,
The frequency of the dominant allele p(X) is pThe frequency of the recessive allele p(x) is qThe genotypic frequencies after one generation are
p² (Homozygous dominant genotypic frequency), 2pq (Heterozygous genotypic frequency), q² (Homozygous recessive genotypic frequency).Allelic and genotypic frequencies remain the same through generations in a population that is in H-W equilibrium. As long as they remain the same, the population is not evolving.
The addition of the allelic frequencies equals 1
p + q = 1.
The sum of genotypic frequencies equals 1
p² + 2pq + q² = 1
In the exposed example, we need to see if the population is evolving or not.
To do it, we will take the genotypic and allelic frequencies of the current generation, and then we will take the expected genotypic frequencies for the next generation to compare them and see if they are the same or different.
Diallelic gene
Dominant allele VRecessive allele vPopulation size = 120 individuals
VV individuals = 16Vv individuals = 92vv individuals = 12Genotypic frequencies (current generation - observed data)
F(VV) = p² = 16/120 = 0.1333
F(Vv) = 2pq = 92/120 = 0.7667
F(vv) = q² = 12/120 = 0.1
Allelic frequencies
f(V) = p = p² + 1/2 2pq = 0.1333 + 0.7667/2 = 0.5166
f(v) = q = q² + 1/2 2pq = 0.1 + 0.7667/2 = 0.4833
According to these allelic frequencies, the expected genotypic frequencies for the following generation would be as follow,
F(VV) = p² = 0.5166² = 0.2668 ≅ 0.267
F(Vv) = 2pq = 2 x 0.5166 x 0.4833 = 0.499
F(vv) = q² = 0.4833² = .02335 ≅ 0.234
And the expected numbers of individuals from the following generation expressing each gentoype would be,
VV = 0.267 x 120 = 32
Vv = 0.499 x 120 = 60
vv = 0.234 x 120 = 28
As we can see, genotypic frequencies change from one generation to the other. We can assume that this population is not in H-W equilibrium and, hence, it is evolving.
p₁² ≠ p₂²
0.1333 < 0.267
2pq₁ ≠ 2pq₂
0.7667 > 0.499
q₁² ≠ q₂²
0.1 < 0.234
The homozygous genotypes are increasing their frequency.
This population is EVOLVING and probably disruptive selection is going on.
You can learn more about the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at
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